MAHARISHI KANAD

 

99.999999% SPACE IN AN ATOM

 

THE FIFTH FORCE

 

QUARKS & GLUONS

 

ATOMIC BOMB

 

THE ATOM

 

GHOST Particles

 

FORMATION OF QUARKS

 How is a quark formed?

You were probably taught in school that the smallest unit of matter is the atom. And then later that atoms are composed of smaller units called electrons, protons, and neutrons.

That's all we thought existed until 50 or so years ago. Then we found ways of breaking apart and looking inside even protons and neutrons, and found they're made of even smaller particles called quarks.

Quarks are subatomic particles. Most of the ones you see were formed by the Big Bang, but quarks can be created with a sufficient amount of energy.

The quarks and gluons are excitations of fundamental quantum fields which exist everywhere in space. The QGP (quark–gluon plasma) was just a consequence of the extremely high initial temperature of these fields, which manifested as a large number of quarks and gluons. When the universe cooled off a bit, those excitations couldn't exist freely all over the place and were confined to bound states (protons, neutrons, etc.).

ATOM FROM SCRATCH

Can we make an atom from scratch?

Theoretically, yes, but it's not yet possible with current technology. While we can't create atoms from nothing, we can combine fundamental particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons to form new atoms. This extremely complex process requires precise control over these particles.

Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus, while electrons orbit it. Creating an atom involves bringing these particles together in the correct way.

The process is immensely difficult. Protons and neutrons are composed of even smaller particles called quarks, held together by incredibly strong forces.

Manipulating these subatomic particles, the building blocks of matter, requires controlling their interactions and collisions. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are held together by strong and weak nuclear forces and electromagnetic forces. To create an atom, we need a source of these particles, a method to accelerate them, and a way to control their interactions and collisions.

Overcoming these forces to assemble or disassemble an atomic nucleus requires immense energy. This principle underlies nuclear reactions like nuclear fission, where an atom's nucleus is split, releasing vast amounts of energy.

Particle accelerators exist that can smash particles together with enough energy to break apart atomic nuclei or create new particles. However, these devices are large, expensive, and energy-intensive. They also cannot assemble specific atoms from scratch, creating a variety of different particles in an unpredictable manner.

Here are two ways we can create atoms:

1. Nuclear fusion: This process involves combining two smaller atomic nuclei to form a larger nucleus. It requires immense heat and pressure, conditions similar to those inside stars. For example, scientists have successfully fused hydrogen atoms to create helium in particle accelerators.

2. Particle accelerators: These machines can accelerate subatomic particles to incredibly high speeds. By colliding these particles with other particles or targets, scientists can create new particles, including protons and neutrons. These particles can then be combined to form new atoms.

However, creating atoms in this way is very expensive and energy-intensive. It's also difficult to control the process and create specific types of atoms.

NUCLEAR FUSIN

They release energy in two forms: heat and light. Heat is the kinetic energy of the atoms moving faster and faster.

Light is the electromagnetic radiation that comes from the electric charges of the atoms changing.

See, nuclear fusion is when two light nuclei, like hydrogen or helium, merge to form a single heavier nucleus, like helium or carbon.

This process releases energy because the new nucleus has less mass than the two original ones.

The missing mass becomes energy, according to Einstein's famous equation E=mc^2.

We are talking about an enormous amount of energy.

One gram of fusion fuel can produce as much energy as 11 tons of coal.

That's why we are trying to harness nuclear fusion for clean and abundant power. Imagine if we could create our own mini-suns on Earth.

But there's a catch.

Nuclear fusion only happens at very high temperatures and pressures, like in the core of the Sun, where it's about 10 million degrees Celsius.

That's hard to recreate on Earth, but not impossible.

Recently, some researchers achieved a major breakthrough by creating a fusion reaction that produced more energy than it consumed. 

[1]

A huge step towards making fusion power a reality.

Nuclear fusion; the ultimate source of power in the universe, and maybe someday, on our planet too.

SUBATOMIC LEVEL

Why is it so hard to explain what happens at the subatomic level?

The problem started before about 100 years when experimental scientists discovered the electron and the proton Theoretical scientists tried to explain the atomic structure based on the simple classical physical laws. They assumed that electron and proton are point-like particles charged with a property called negative and positive electricity. The simple model of one electron turning around a proton explained certain behavior of hydrogen but a similar model for heavier atoms was questionable. Model considering the particles as vortex rings of classical physics was rejected and the quantum theories supported by hard mathematics were adopted and used to explain the plethora of experimental data obtained till now.

My theory (see details in my profile in Quora) can explain simply the atomic structure based on the hypothesis that proton and electron are cyclonic structures similar to Lord Kelvin’s vortex ring proposed in year 1867, inside a pressure field of Ideal Gas (as defined in Boltzmann’s (1866) classical Kinetic Theory of mass-points interacting by perfect elastic collisions).

The Universal Dark Energy (UDE) that fulfills our 3D space and generates the accelerated expansion of our Universe, supports the hypothesis that the UDE is the kinetic energy of the mass-points of a Universal Ideal Gas (UIG) that fulfills our 3D space.

In the pressure field of the UIG many unstable cyclonic forms can be formed but only two sizes of kinetic energy- excitations in the form of vortex rings (and their anti-vortex rings) can be stable. Therefore proton and electron (and their antiparticles) are the only stable ring-shaped cyclones (with a ring-shaped cyclonic eye and an axial cyclonic eye) inside the UIG.

Cyclonic swirls around their cyclonic eyes generate (according to Bernoulli principle) strong pressure gradients resulting into the Coulomb electric force and the nuclear force.I summarize some of my simple fundamental points:

1. Electrons are not point-like particles. They are all identical extremely thin vortex rings of radius R=10^-10 m with a pressure gradient around them expressed as “negative charge”.

2. Electron-rings are knitting spinning electronic cages around the nucleus of atoms.

3. After two electron-rings parallel between the nucleus the electronic cage is formed by electron-rings inscribed in the triangular faces of successive 4-hedra.4. The outermost electron rings that encircle a nucleus may be 1 or 2 or 3 or 4.

Here below is a comparison between my model and the quantum model for oxygen atom:

ATOM - ELECTRONS ARRANGEMENT

 The arrangement of electrons in an atom is determined by the principles of quantum mechanics. According to the atomic theory, each electron in an atom is described by a set of quantum numbers that determine its energy level, the shape of the region it occupies (its orbital), and its orientation and spin. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers, which leads to a specific arrangement of electrons in an atom.

In the case of an oxygen atom, it has 8 electrons. These electrons fill up the energy levels and orbitals in a specific order.

1. The first two electrons fill the 1s orbital,
2. The next two fill the 2s orbital,
3. The remaining four fill two of the three available 2p orbitals. This is often written as 1s² 2s² 2p⁴, following the Aufbau principle, which states that electrons fill lower-energy orbitals before they fill higher-energy ones.

It's true that the electrons form a "cloud" around the nucleus, but this cloud is not uniform. Instead, the cloud is denser in the regions where the electrons are more likely to be found, which are determined by their orbitals. The shape and size of these orbitals, and therefore the shape and size of the electron cloud, are determined by the electrons' quantum numbers.

The number of electrons in an atom (in its neutral state) is equal to the number of protons in the atom's nucleus, which determines the atomic number and identifies the element. So an atom with 8 protons in its nucleus is an oxygen atom, and if it's neutral, it will also have 8 electrons. We can identify the element based on its atomic number (which is the number of protons), and predict its electron configuration based on quantum mechanical principles.

In experimental settings, techniques like spectroscopy can be used to study the electrons in an atom. When an atom is excited (for example, by heating it or exposing it to light), its electrons can absorb energy and move to a higher-energy orbital. When they fall back down to a lower-energy orbital, they emit light of a specific wavelength. By studying the wavelengths of light emitted by an atom, scientists can determine the energy levels of its electrons and thus its electron configuration. Different elements have unique spectral lines which act like their fingerprint.

EVERY ATOM IN OUR BODY ................

Most of the elements that make up the periodic table are produced in supernovae explosions - the final stage of evolution of massive stars. So it is true nearly all the elements in the human body are made in a star and many have come through several supernovae - recycled.

Stars carry out nuclear fusion reactions at their cores, producing light elements until it reaches the stage of iron. This is when the fusion reactions cease because fusion of iron consumes more energy than it can produce. When fusion stops, the star is not in hydrostatic balance anymore,, and it explodes as a supernova, expelling all the elements that had been generated so far. Then the next generation of stars form from those elements, burn and are again swept out. This is how star material is recycled.

When the supernova explosion occurs the blast initially contains a large density of free neutrons, which may rapidly synthesize, generating roughly half of the elements in the universe that are heavier than iron.

99.9% OF ATOM CONTAIN NOTHING

 Q: If the atom contains 99.9% of nothing, then why aren’t we just a tiny bit transparent then?

There are two ways of answering this, both of which are equally valid.

The first is that it’s a myth that atoms are mostly empty space. The myth arises from thinking of electrons, neutrons, and protons as little balls, with the electrons orbiting like planets around the sun. That’s still the way many children are introduced to atomic theory, but it’s utterly wrong.

In fact, these “subatomic particles” are not literally particles (the way we understand them in everyday life) nor are they waves (the way we understand them in everyday life). They are what they are—quanta—and have both wave-like and particle like properties, but are not either of those.

The result is, they don’t have fixed sizes and positions, but “spread out” through space in a probabalistic way.

That is, the space isn’t empty, but is occupied by the “particles” as tightly as possible, given their wobbledy natures.

The second consideration is that light is also made of quanta and these have a wavelength a thousand times bigger than atoms. So light cannot “enter” any atom, it can only interact with the outermost shell of electrons. Whether the inside of the atom is “empty” or “full” is irrelevant.

Whether matter is opaque or not and what color it has is determined by whether and how photons of light interact with the outermost layers of electrons in the atoms of that material. If photons arrive at a sufficiently wrong frequency (energy) to be absorbed by the outer electrons, they will mostly pass right on through the atom, and whether that space is “full” or not makes no difference.

This is why x-rays can pass through people and landscape images through windows—it’s just a matter of the photons not being absorbed.

It’s also why radio signals can’t penetrate deep underground. Radio is just light of a longer wavelength, and can penetrate most common materials. But like all quanta, its frequency and interaction is probabilistic. Even a photon of “the wrong frequency” has a small chance of being absorbed, though as the barrier grows thicker, that chance grows larger. Eventually, no photons can make it through any farther.

On the other hand, while light transmission occurs when the energy (wavelength) of the light is much larger or smaller than that the electrons can absorb, reflection or scattering occurs when the energy is close to the absorption band but absorption doesn’t occur. The classic reason for this is in a polished metal, where surface electrons are loosely bound enough to absorb photons of essentially any energy, but then bump into a neighbour and release the just-absorbed photon. This is why the bulk forms of metals are generally grey, and why polished metals (where there are no surface irregularities to trap escaping photons) make good mirrors.

But again, this is all probabalistic, so for example, even the best mirror absorbs some photons of all frequencies. A polished piece of wood may be shiny, but because it doesn’t have that outer sea of conductive electrons, it’s not exactly a mirror. And a leaf, having both a rough surface attuned to absorbing the magenta end of the visible spectrum may not be shiny at all, but still reflects enough green photons to have color. And of course, all three examples gain nuance through some degree of absorption, transmission, scattering, and reflection—nothing is every really perfectly reflective, transparent, or opaque.

MAHARISHI KANADA

 Maharishi Kanada invented atomic theory before 600 BC

From his philosophy - Vaisheshika Sutra

There are nine constituents of realities: four classes of atoms (earth, water, light and air), space (akasha), time (kāla), direction (disha), infinity of souls (Atman), mind (manas).

Every object of creation is made of atoms (paramāṇu) which in turn connect with each other to form molecules (aṇu). Atoms are eternal, and their combinations constitute the empirical material world.

Individual souls are eternal and pervade material bodies for a time.

ATOM

 

Atoms are actually mostly empty space. The nucleus of an atom is very tiny compared to the size of the atom itself, and the electrons are even smaller.

If you could magnify an atom to the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be like a grain of sand in the middle, and the electrons would be like tiny specks flying around in the stands.

The rest would be just empty space.

So, if atoms are mostly empty space, how can they form solid objects?

The answer is that atoms are held together by different types of forces, such as electromagnetic force and nuclear force.

These forces create bonds between atoms that make them stick together and form molecules.

Molecules can then form different types of matter depending on how they are arranged and how they interact with each other.

For example, water molecules are arranged in a way that makes them liquid at room temperature.

Therefore, we can say that atoms themselves are not solid, but they can form solid matter when they bond with other atoms.